Second Generation Refugees

Second-generation Somali refugees (youth born in Kenya's refugee camps or in Kenya to refugee parents) face distinctive challenges and opportunities. These young people have never lived in Somalia, have limited connection to their parents' homeland, and navigate complex identities as Kenyans who are not Kenyan citizens, and Somali who have little lived experience of Somalia.

Demographic Scale

Dadaab and Kakuma camps have hosted refugee populations for 30+ years (since 1991). Large numbers of refugee children have been born in these camps. An estimated 100,000-150,000 second-generation refugees (minors born in camps or to refugee parents in camps) live in Kenya's refugee camps.

Additionally, uncounted numbers of second-generation refugees have been born to refugee parents in urban areas (Nairobi, Mombasa, other cities), creating a larger second-generation population.

Childhood in Refugee Camps

Second-generation refugees who have grown up in Dadaab or Kakuma have known only camp life. Their formative experiences include:

(Humanitarian aid dependency: Growing up in an aid-dependent system where food, healthcare, and education are provided by humanitarian organizations.)

(Camp governance and clan organization: Experiencing community governance through camp administration and clan elders.)

(Limited economic opportunity: Few job or income-generating opportunities outside humanitarian employment.)

(Restricted movement: Camp restrictions limiting travel outside designated areas.)

(Trauma exposure: Exposure to stories of war and displacement from parents, though not direct experience.)

Education and Language

Second-generation refugees receive education in camps through humanitarian schools. Curriculum is typically Kenyan (following Kenyan national standards) with Somali language instruction in some settings.

Many second-generation refugees are fluent in Swahili (Kenya's primary language), English (taught in Kenyan schools), and Somali (spoken at home). This trilingualism is an asset for future integration or diaspora opportunities.

However, educational quality in camps is variable. Some youth do not complete secondary school, limiting future opportunities.

Language and Identity Formation

Second-generation refugees report stronger identification with Somali language and culture than their parents, partly as a way to maintain identity in displacement. Though raised in Kenya, many embrace Somali cultural practices, Islamic religiosity, and connection to Somalia.

However, many second-generation refugees also identify as Kenyan, having spent their entire lives in Kenya. This creates hybrid, sometimes contradictory, identities.

Digital Connectivity and Diaspora Engagement

Unlike their parents, second-generation refugees have access to digital technology (mobile phones, internet where available in camps). This enables connection to the global Somali diaspora, social media engagement, and access to information about Somalia and Kenya.

Diaspora engagement offers some second-generation refugees aspirations to migrate abroad or engage in diaspora business networks.

Legal Status and Citizenship Ambiguity

Second-generation refugees born in Kenya face uncertain legal status. Technically, they are Somali by descent, but have never lived in Somalia. Kenya's legal system does not automatically grant citizenship to children born to non-citizen parents.

Many second-generation refugees lack national identity documents (Kenyan ID cards), creating barriers to education, employment, voting, and official recognition.

Some second-generation refugees have obtained refugee documentation (UNHCR recognition), allowing them to live legally in camps. Others are entirely undocumented.

Employment and Economic Perspectives

Second-generation refugees completing secondary education seek employment. Options include:

(Humanitarian employment: Jobs with UNHCR, NGOs, and other organizations operating in camps.)

(Small business: Informal trading and service provision within camps and urban refugee settlements.)

(Education: Teaching in camp schools, particularly for those with secondary education.)

(Formal employment in Kenya: Some who obtain Kenyan documentation can access formal jobs, though restrictions remain.)

(Migration: Some aspire to resettle to third countries (USA, Australia, Canada) through UNHCR resettlement programs.)

Resettlement and Third Country Options

UNHCR resettlement programs have offered pathways for some refugees to resettle to third countries. Second-generation refugees with strong claims and favorable interviews have been resettled to the USA, Australia, Canada, and other countries.

Resettlement creates opportunity for education and economic advancement but also generates disruption and displacement for those separated from family and community.

Mental Health and Psychological Adaptation

Second-generation refugees face mental health challenges including depression, anxiety, and identity confusion. Long-term encampment without clear pathways to adulthood creates hopelessness and despair for some.

Conversely, some second-generation refugees demonstrate resilience and agency, using education and community involvement to build futures despite displacement.

Urban Second-Generation Refugees

Second-generation refugees born to refugee parents in urban areas (Nairobi, Mombasa) may have somewhat better economic opportunities (through informal trade, hawala, small business) but face security profiling and legal status uncertainty.

Urban second-generation refugees are sometimes more integrated into Kenya (fluent in Swahili and Kenyan culture) but also more vulnerable to police harassment and detention.

Future Perspectives and Integration Questions

Questions facing second-generation refugees include:

(Repatriation: Will they eventually return to Somalia? Many have never lived there and have minimal connection.)

(Integration in Kenya: Can they access Kenyan citizenship and full integration into Kenyan society?)

(Third country resettlement: Will resettlement opportunities continue to be available?)

(Diaspora engagement: Will they maintain connection to global Somali diaspora networks?)

Advocacy and Youth Leadership

Some second-generation refugees have become activists and advocates for refugee rights, particularly around citizenship and education access. Youth organizations within camps have pushed for better services and greater voice in camp decision-making.

These youth are sometimes bridges between traditional elder authority (their parents) and modern Kenyan or global norms and expectations.

Sources

Refugee Law Project, "Coming of Age in Displacement: Second-Generation Refugees in East Africa" (2015), available at https://www.refugeelawproject.org/
UNHCR, "Future Generations: Children and Youth in Refugee Camps" (2018), available at https://www.unhcr.org/
International Crisis Group, "The Lost Decade: Somali Refugees and Prospects for Durable Solutions" (2017), available at https://www.crisisgroup.org/africa/horn-africa
World Bank, "Education and Economic Opportunity for Refugee Youth" (2016), available at https://www.worldbank.org/

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