The devolution of powers to county governments following Kenya's 2010 constitutional reform brought significant institutional change and infrastructure development to Mandera for the first time, establishing a county government with revenue sources and administrative structures separate from the national government. This devolutionary framework, implemented beginning in 2013, fundamentally transformed Mandera's governance structures and created new opportunities and challenges for local development.
Constitutional Framework
Kenya's 2010 constitution established 47 county governments with powers devolved from the national government over health, education, water, local roads, and numerous other functions. Mandera became one of these counties, with an elected county governor, elected county assembly members, and a county administrative structure responsible for local service delivery and development.
This devolutionary framework was revolutionary for Mandera, a region that had historically been administered as a colonial district with minimal resource allocation or infrastructure investment. For the first time, Mandera had political leadership directly accountable to local voters, revenue sources dedicated to local development, and the institutional authority to plan and implement development priorities identified by local communities.
Early Devolution Implementation (2013-2017)
The first devolution period coincided with the initial county governor election in 2013, with Mohamed Ali Aden elected as Mandera's first county governor. His election represented the first time Mandera had locally elected political leadership with substantial powers and resources. The early devolution period saw rapid establishment of county administration, development of county government structures, and commencement of infrastructure projects.
Early devolution priorities included water projects, given the critical water scarcity challenge. County government investments in borehole drilling, water pan construction, and water supply systems expanded water access in towns and pastoral areas. These projects, though insufficient to solve Mandera's water crisis, represented the first major government-level investment in water infrastructure in the county's history.
Education also received county government attention, with support for primary school development, construction of secondary school facilities, and teacher recruitment efforts. County government resources enabled educational infrastructure expansion beyond what the national government alone had provided.
Health services similarly benefited from county government investment. Though constrained by budget limitations and the challenge of serving a dispersed pastoral population, county government support enabled expansion of health facilities and recruitment of health workers. Health facilities that had been poorly resourced or non-functional received rehabilitation and improved supply chains.
Revenue and Budget Constraints
County government revenue in Mandera comes from national government transfers through the equitable share and conditional grants formula, as well as limited local revenue collection (property rates, business permits, and other local taxes). Mandera's tax base is limited due to low levels of formal economic activity, high poverty rates, and limited commercial activity. County government budgets are therefore substantially dependent on national transfers.
The formulas for distributing national revenue to counties are contested, with smaller, poorer counties like Mandera receiving per-capita revenue below more developed counties. Advocates argue that poverty-based allocations should deliver more resources to poor counties to enable catch-up, while others argue for equal distribution or population-based allocation. This ongoing debate affects Mandera's available resources for development.
Despite revenue constraints, the existence of county government has created a dedicated revenue stream for Mandera development. Prior to devolution, development resources were allocated through national government ministries, and Mandera's remoteness and limited political influence meant allocations were minimal. With devolution, at least some revenue was guaranteed for local development.
Infrastructure Development
Devolution has enabled visible infrastructure development in Mandera. County government has constructed or rehabilitated roads, leading to improved connectivity within the county and to other regions. While road networks remain limited and many areas lack all-weather roads, devolution has enabled road development at a pace previously impossible.
County government has constructed or rehabilitated public buildings, government offices, market facilities, and water infrastructure. These visible projects demonstrate government presence and service delivery to communities that historically had received minimal government attention. In towns like Mandera town and other administrative centers, county government infrastructure development has been apparent.
Water infrastructure development remains a priority, with county government supporting borehole drilling, shallow well construction, and water supply systems. The adequacy of these investments remains debated, with advocates arguing for much greater investment in water infrastructure to solve chronic water scarcity, while county government budgets face constraints.
Devolution and Pastoral Livelihood Support
County government has attempted to support pastoral livelihoods through various initiatives, including livestock extension services, rangeland management programs, and drought preparedness initiatives. The county government has also partnered with national government, international organizations, and NGOs in drought response efforts.
However, the fundamental challenge of pastoralism in an arid environment with limited water and degraded rangelands remains difficult to address through county government programs. Pastoral productivity continues to be undermined by droughts and resource scarcity. Some argue that county government has under-prioritized pastoral production support relative to other sectors.
Political Dynamics and Governance Challenges
Mandera's devolution period has been shaped by clan-based political competition. The Degodia and Garre clans, the two dominant pastoral groups, have competed for control of county government and access to county government resources. Electoral competition has often been organized along clan lines, with different county governors and assembly members drawing support primarily from their own clans.
Clan-based political competition raises concerns about equitable resource distribution. Pastoral groups perceive that development resources may be directed toward areas or communities associated with the governing clan, while other areas receive less investment. This perception, whether or not it reflects actual practice, generates political tensions.
County government has also faced capacity challenges, particularly in financial management and planning. Officers, both elected and appointed, often lack specialized training in budgeting, planning, and project management. This has sometimes led to projects that are poorly planned, inappropriately designed, or inefficiently implemented.
County-National Government Relations
Devolution has created a complex relationship between county governments and the national government. While the constitution specifies that certain functions are devolved to counties while others remain national government responsibilities, there is ongoing debate and sometimes overlap about which level should provide which services.
In Mandera, tensions have arisen over who should fund and manage education, health, and water services, with both county and national government having roles. Coordination challenges sometimes result in duplication, gaps, or inefficiencies in service delivery.
Assessment
Devolution has brought institutional change and infrastructure development to Mandera, establishing visible government presence and enabling local prioritization of development needs. However, the pace and scale of development remain constrained by limited revenue, capacity challenges, and the magnitude of underlying development deficits. Mandera remains one of Kenya's least developed counties, with high poverty, low education and health indicators, and limited economic development.
Whether devolution can enable sufficiently rapid development to address Mandera's challenges, or whether the county will continue to lag nationally despite devolution, remains an open question that depends on both improved county government performance and continued national government investment in Mandera's development.
See Also
- Mandera County
- Mandera Infrastructure
- Mandera Education
- Mandera Health
- Mandera Politics
- Mandera Water
Sources
- Kenya Constitution 2010 - Fourth Schedule (County Functions)
- Mandera County Integrated Development Plan 2018-2022
- Commission on Revenue Allocation - County Revenue Allocation Study
- Institute of Economic Affairs - Devolution Performance Report Kenya
- Open Government Partnership - Kenya County Governance Review